We have been studying Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), specifically Karenia brevis in the Gulf of Mexico for over a decade. These HABs directly impact human health and cause numerous ‘trickle down’ economic effects through reduction in wild and farmed fish stocks and decreased tourism (Hallengraff 1993). Anderson et al. (2000) estimated that national economic losses due to harmful algal blooms between 1987 and 1992 were on the order of $450,000,000. In the western waters off Florida, blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate K. brevis (formerly Gymnodinium brevis) have occurred annually in the Gulf of Mexico (31 out of 32 years since records have been kept) and the geographic extent of the blooms appears to have increased in recent years. These blooms have resulted in fish kills and reduced commercial seafood production and recreational fishing success along the coastlines of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina and Texas. Economic impact studies showed a loss to Florida of nearly 20 million dollars from a bloom in 1971 and more than 15 million dollars from a 1973-74 bloom. In a national plan identifying research and information needs for bio-toxins and harmful algae, it was suggested that more effective sampling approaches should involve analyses providing phytoplankton-specific information allowing for the delineation potentially toxic taxa. Given this our long term goal is to develop and deploy integrated observational network to study the ecology of K. brevis in order to understand the factors leading to the initiation of these algal blooms.

Our efforts to date:

• We Developed bio-optical approaches that can detect the presence of K. brevis. This optical approach has been verified in theory, in the lab and in the field. The approach has been demonstrated using the satellites and ocean going robots.
• We have developed and demonstrated robotic monitoring networks that can be used to map HABs when they occur in the Gulf of Mexcio.
• We have developed small minituarized hyperspectral spectrometers which can be carried on ocean going robots and moorings
• We have studied the physiological ecology of K. brevis, focusing on photosynthetic potential, vertical migration, and nutrient physiology

Scientists involved in the project
	Oscar Schofield - RU COOL	website
	Scott Glenn - RU COOL	website
	Josh Kohut - RU COOL	website
	Gary Kirkpatrick - Mote Marine Lab	website
	Barbara Kirkpatrick - Mote Marine Labs	website
	Mark Moline - Cal Poly	website
	David Millie - Florida Institute of Oceanography	website

 Karenia brevis eating a city

The neuro-toxic Karenia brevis which is an Annual HAB species in the Gulf of Mexico.

A HAB washing in close to a beach in Florida

A fish kill induced by a Karenia bloom

Project Resources and Results

• WHOI: Harmful Algae
• National Ocean Service: Harmful Algal Blooms
• Texas Parks and Wildlife: Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)
• NCCOS: Harmful Algal Blooms

Publications

• Millie, D. F., Schofield, O., Kirkpatrick, G. J., Johnsen, G., Tester, P. A., Vinyard, B. T. 1997. Phytoplankton pigments and absorption spectra as potential 'Biomarkers' for harmful algal blooms: A case study of the Florida red-tide dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve. Limnology Oceanography 42(5): 1240-1251.
• Schofield, O., Gryzmski, J., Bissett, P., Kirkpatrick, G., Millie, D. F., Moline, M. A. Roesler, C. 1999. Optical monitoring and forecasting systems for harmful algal blooms: Possibility or pipedream? Journal of Phycology. 35: 1477-1496.
• Millie, D.F., Dionigi, C.P., Schofield, O., Tester, P.A. 1999. The importance of understanding the molecular, cellular, and ecophysiological bases of harmful algal blooms. Journal of Phycology 35: 1353-1355.
• Kirkpatrick, G., Millie, D. F., Moline, M. A., Schofield, O. 2000. Absorption-based discrimination of phytoplankton species in naturally mixed populations. Limnology and Oceanography 42: 467-471.
• Millie, D. F., Schofield, O., Kirkpatrick, G. J., Johnsen, G., Evens, T. J. 2002. Using absorbance and fluorescence spectra to discriminate microalgae. European Journal of Phycology. 37:313-322.
• Bissett, W.P., Arnone, R., DeBra, S., Dieterle, D. A., Dye, D., Kirkpatrick, G., Schofield, O., Vargo, G. A.. 2005. Predicting the optical properties of the West Florida Shelf: Resolving the potential impacts of a terrestrial boundary condition on the distribution of colored dissolved and particulate matter. Marine Chemistry doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2004.09.007: .1-35.
• Kerfoot, J., Kirkpatrick, G., Lohrenz, S., Mahoney, K., Moline, M., Schofield, O. 2005. Vertical Migration of a Karenia brevis Bloom: Implications for Remote Sensing of Harmful Algal Blooms, in: Harmful Algae 2002: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Harmful Algae, Steidinger, K.A., Landsberg, J.H., Tomas, C.R., and Vargo, G.A. (eds). 2005. Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, St. Petersburg, Florida, USA. 279-283.
• Schofield, O., J. Kerfoot, K. Mahoney, M. Moline, M. Oliver, S. Lohrenz, and G. Kirkpatrick 2006. Vertical migration of the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and the impact on ocean optical properties. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, C06009, doi:10.1029/2005JC003115
• Craig, S. E., Lohrenz, S. E., Lee, Z., Kirkpatrick, G. J., Schofield, O., Steward, R. G. 2006. Use of hyperspectral remote sensing reflectance for detection and assessment of the harmful alga, Karenia brevis. Applied Optics. 45(21): 5415-5425.
• Schofield, O., Bosch, J., Glenn, S. M., Kirkpatrick, G., Kerfoot, J., Moline, M., Oliver, M., Bissett, W. P. 2007. Bio-optics in integrated ocean observing networks: potential for studying harmful algal blooms. In Real Time Coastal Observing Systems for Ecosystems Dynamics and Harmful Algal Blooms. Babin, M. Roelser, C. and Cullen, J. J. (Eds) UNESCO, Paris. 85-108.
• Bissett, W. P., Arnone, R., Debra, S., Dye, D., Kirkpatrick, G., Mobley, C., Schofield, O. 2007. The integration of ocean color remote sensing with coastal nowcast/forecast simulations of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). In Real Time Coastal Observing Systems for Ecosystems Dynamics and Harmful Algal Blooms. Babin, M. And Cullen, J. J. (Eds) UNESCO, Paris. 695-732.